Today, the main models of communication are can be split into three categories:
- Linear models – only looks at one-way communication.
- Interactive models – looks at two-way communication.
- Transactional models – looks at two-way communication where the message gets more complex as the communication event (e.g. conversation) progresses.
This article will outline all 8 major models of communication currently studied in communications courses at college. Here’s a quick summary to get started:
| # | Model of Communication | Type of Model | Brief Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Aristotle’s Model | Linear | Aristotle argues that we should look at five elements of a communication event to analyze how best to communicate: speaker, speech, occasion, target audience and effect. |
| 2. | Lasswell’s Model | Linear | Lasswell’s model is a basic framework for analyzing one-way communication by asking five questions: Who, said what, through which channel, to whom, with what effects? |
| 3. | Shannon-Weaver Model | Linear | The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to highlight the role of ‘noise’ in communication, which can disrupt or alter a message between sender and receiver. |
| 4. | Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model | Linear | Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains communication in four steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver. |
| 5. | Osgood-Schramm Model | Interactive | The Osgood-Schramm model looks at reciprocal communication, showing how we have to encode, decode, and interpret information in real-time during a conversation. |
| 6. | Westley and Maclean Model | Interactive | The Westley and Maclean model shows that our communication is influenced by environmental, cultural and personal factors. |
| 7. | Barnlund’s Transactional Model | Transactional | Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication highlights the role of private and public cues that impact our messages. |
| 8. | Dance’s Helical Model | Transactional | Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as communication occurs, which can be represented by a helical spiral. |
1. Aristotle’s Model (circa 4th century BCE)
Type: Linear
Aristotle’s model focuses on public speaking and persuasion. It emphasizes five key elements: the speaker (who delivers), the speech (the message content), the occasion (context or situation), the target audience (listeners), and the effect (impact on audience). This model is speaker-centered and aims to achieve a specific response. Example: A political leader (speaker) delivers a campaign speech (message) at a rally (occasion) to potential voters (audience) to gain their support (effect). The speaker must adapt their message based on these elements to persuade effectively.
2. Lasswell’s Model (1948)
Type: Linear
Lasswell’s model provides a simple framework for analyzing mass communication through five questions: Who (communicator), Says What (message content), In Which Channel (medium used), To Whom (receiver/audience), and With What Effect (outcome/impact). This model is particularly useful for studying media communication and propaganda. Example: A news anchor (who) reports breaking news about a natural disaster (says what) on television (channel) to millions of viewers (to whom), causing widespread public awareness and donations (effect). This model helps identify each component’s role in the communication process.
3. Shannon-Weaver Model (1949)
Type: Linear
Originally developed for telephone communication, this model introduced the concept of “noise” – anything that interferes with message transmission. It includes six elements: information source, transmitter, channel, receiver, destination, and noise source. Noise can be physical, semantic, or psychological interference. Example: You (source) call your friend (destination) on a mobile phone (transmitter/channel/receiver), but poor network connection (noise) causes static and dropped words, making your message unclear. The noise disrupts the signal, demonstrating how external factors can distort communication even when sender and receiver are competent communicators.
4. Osgood-Schramm Model (1954)
Type: Interactive
This circular model shows communication as a two-way process where both parties act as sender and receiver simultaneously. It emphasizes encoding (converting thoughts to messages), decoding (interpreting messages), and interpreting (making meaning). Each person’s background affects how they encode and decode messages. Example: During a conversation, you tell a joke (encode and send) while simultaneously watching your friend’s facial expressions (receive and decode) to gauge their reaction. Your friend laughs (encode and send) while listening to your next comment (receive and decode). This continuous cycle shows communication as interactive rather than one-directional.
5. Westley and Maclean Model (1957)
Type: Interactive
This model expands on earlier frameworks by including environmental factors and feedback mechanisms. It recognizes that messages are influenced by the communicator’s environment, personal experiences, and cultural background. It’s particularly relevant for mass media communication. Example: A journalist (communicator) selects and reports news stories based on their cultural context and editorial guidelines (environmental factors). Viewers (receivers) interpret the news through their own cultural lens and may provide feedback through social media or ratings (feedback loop), which influences future reporting. The environment shapes both message creation and interpretation.
6. Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model (1960)
Type: Linear
Berlo’s model breaks communication into four components: Source (sender’s communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system, culture), Message (content, elements, treatment, structure, code), Channel (five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting), and Receiver (same factors as source). Each component has multiple factors affecting communication effectiveness. Example: A teacher (source) with excellent communication skills and subject knowledge prepares a well-structured biology lesson (message) using visual slides and demonstrations (channel through sight and hearing) for students (receivers) whose understanding depends on their prior knowledge, attention, and cultural background affecting how they process information.
7. Dance’s Helical Model (1967)
Type: Transactional
Dance visualizes communication as an upward spiral or helix, representing how communication evolves and becomes more complex over time. Each communication experience builds on previous ones, expanding understanding and relationship depth. The spiral grows wider as communication continues, showing increased knowledge and complexity. Example: When you first meet someone (narrow base of helix), conversations are simple and superficial. Over months of friendship (spiral moves upward), your communication becomes richer, incorporating shared experiences, inside jokes, and deeper understanding. Years later (wider spiral), your communication is highly nuanced and complex, built on accumulated shared history and mutual understanding.
8. Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970)
Type: Transactional
Barnlund’s model presents communication as simultaneous and multidirectional, influenced by private cues (internal thoughts, feelings, experiences) and public cues (environmental elements, verbal and nonverbal behaviors). Both parties continuously send and receive messages simultaneously, creating meaning through their unique interpretation of various cues. Example: During a job interview, you (candidate) respond to questions while simultaneously noticing the interviewer’s body language, office environment, and company culture (public cues). Meanwhile, your nervousness and past experiences (private cues) influence your responses. The interviewer simultaneously processes your words, appearance, and confidence while their own biases and expectations (private cues) shape their evaluation.
Evolution Summary: These models show communication theory’s progression from simple, one-way transmission (Linear) to recognition of feedback and interaction (Interactive) to understanding communication as complex, simultaneous, and continuously evolving (Transactional).
